King Lear by William Shakespeare | King Lear Analysis and Summary | Plot | Characters | Themes | Style |Critical Analysis | Free PDF Download – Easy Literary Lessons
King Lear
“King Lear” is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, first performed on December 26, 1606, by The King’s Men acting company before King James I and the court at Whitehall. The play was officially registered on November 26, 1607.
The first published version of the play, known as the First Quarto, was published in 1608 by Nathaniel Butter and John Busby. This version is often referred to as the “Pied Bull” Quarto. There are twelve known copies of this edition, each with slight variations due to the proofreading process of the time.
In 1619, a second edition of the First Quarto was printed by William Jaggard for Thomas Pavier (falsely dated as 1608). The play also appeared in the Folio volume of Shakespeare’s work published in 1623 by John Heminges and Henry Condell, fellow actors in The King’s Men. The Folio text differs significantly from the First Quarto, with an additional 300 lines and missing 100 lines found in the Quarto editions.
Modern editions of “King Lear” often combine the two texts, adding the lines from the Quarto that the Folio lacks, and comparing readings in the two texts when there is confusion about which is better. In 1988, Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor argued in The Oxford Shakespeare that the Quarto and Folio texts were two substantially different plays, each by Shakespeare, with the Folio text being a revised version of the Quarto text.
The story of King Lear and his daughters can be traced back to several sources, including an earlier play called “The True Chronicle History of King Leir”, Geoffrey of Monmouth’s “History of the Kings of England”, “The Mirror for Magistrates”, “Holinshed’s Chronicles”, William Warner’s “Albions England”, and Edmund Spenser’s epic “The Fairie Queene”. The subplot involving the character Gloucester is found in Sir Philip Sydney’s “Arcadia”, and Samuel Harsnett’s “Declaration of Egregious Popishe Impostures” is the source for much of Edgar’s mad talk and references to demons.
The performance history of “King Lear” is unique. The theaters in London were closed in 1642 by the English Parliament, which was politically at odds with King Charles I and had a Puritanical religious inclination. The theaters remained closed during the English Commonwealth established in 1649 under Oliver Cromwell, and were not reopened until 1661, a year after the restoration of the monarchy. When the theaters reopened, the theater and English culture itself had changed significantly from Shakespeare’s day. For instance, women began to act the parts of women, and the stage evolved from a bare platform to a proscenium stage adapted to using scenery.
Plot
Act 1, Scene 1
In Act 1, Scene 1 of King Lear, the play begins with a conversation between Kent and Gloucester. They discuss the division of the kingdom and the apparent conflicts arising from it. Edmund, Gloucester’s illegitimate son, is introduced, and Kent asks if he is Gloucester’s son. Gloucester acknowledges him, revealing that Edmund was his illegitimate son, and despite having a legitimate older son, Gloucester claims to love both equally.
The court, led by King Lear, enters, and Lear instructs Gloucester to bring in the King of France and the Duke of Burgundy. Lear announces his plan to abdicate and divide his kingdom among his three daughters. He wishes to keep only a small retinue and ceremonial honors. The division of power will be based on a public declaration of love from each daughter. Goneril, the eldest, expresses her love with exaggerated eloquence, and Lear rewards her with a portion of the kingdom. Regan, the second daughter, follows suit with even more intense declarations, and Lear grants her a share as well.
Cordelia, the youngest daughter, communicates to the audience that she cannot speak in the same exaggerated manner but assures them of her deep love for her father. When Lear turns to her, expecting a similar declaration, Cordelia remains silent. Enraged, Lear banishes her, giving her share to Goneril and Regan. Kent tries to intervene, but Lear dismisses him, banishing him under the threat of death.
The King of France and the Duke of Burgundy, learning that Cordelia is now without inheritance, react differently. Burgundy withdraws his marriage proposal, but the King of France accepts Cordelia without the dowry, considering her love sufficient.
As the court withdraws, Cordelia bids farewell to her sisters, expresses concern for Lear, and leaves for France. In a private conversation, Goneril and Regan reveal to the audience that their earlier expressions of love were mere flattery. They discuss Lear’s instability, rashness, and lack of self-awareness, acknowledging the need to manage his unpredictable behavior.
Act 1, Scene 2
In Act 1, Scene 2 of “King Lear”, Edmund, Gloucester’s illegitimate son, enters alone. He delivers a soliloquy expressing his resentment at being denied the rights and privileges of a legitimate son. He asserts that he is in no way inferior to a legitimate son and plans to claim his brother Edgar’s inheritance.
Gloucester interrupts Edmund’s thoughts when he enters, troubled by recent events at court. Seeing Edmund with a letter, Gloucester asks about its contents. Edmund initially tries to hide the letter, but eventually gives it to Gloucester. The letter, which Edmund has forged, appears to be an invitation from Edgar to join a conspiracy to murder Gloucester and share his wealth. Edmund admits that Edgar has spoken to him about such matters, but advises Gloucester not to judge Edgar hastily.
Gloucester leaves, attributing the recent troubles to cosmic forces. Alone, Edmund mocks his father’s superstitions and declares himself the architect of his own fate. When Edgar approaches, Edmund pretends to be deep in thought. He tells Edgar that Gloucester is angry with him. Edgar suspects that someone has wronged him, and Edmund, hiding his irony, agrees. Edmund advises Edgar to hide in his lodgings where he can overhear a conversation between Edmund and Gloucester. He also tells Edgar to arm himself. Alone, Edmund congratulates himself on his father’s gullibility, his brother’s naivety, and his own ability to shape his destiny.
Act 1, Scene 3
In Act 1, Scene 3 of “King Lear”, Goneril, Lear’s eldest daughter, expresses her dissatisfaction with her father’s behavior to her steward, Oswald. She claims that Lear and his knights are behaving riotously and that Lear is being argumentative. Goneril is upset that Lear still wants to exercise his authority.
She instructs Oswald to treat Lear and his knights disrespectfully, even encouraging him to provoke a quarrel. Goneril suggests that if Lear is unhappy with the way he is treated, he can go stay with her sister Regan. She adds that Regan shares her views on how their father should be treated.
Act 1, Scene 4
In Act 1, Scene 4 of “King Lear”, Kent, determined to continue serving Lear, appears in disguise. Lear enters and commands one of his attendants to ensure his dinner is ready. He notices Kent and asks who he is. Kent introduces himself as a plain, honest, and loyal man who wishes to serve Lear. Lear accepts his service.
As they speak, Oswald, Goneril’s steward, passes by. Lear asks him where Goneril is, but Oswald ignores him disrespectfully and leaves. One of Lear’s knights follows Oswald and returns, informing Lear that Oswald said Goneril was unwell. The knight also mentions that Lear is not being treated with the respect he expects. Lear is grateful for this information and calls for his jester, the Fool. The knight informs Lear that the Fool has been greatly dejected since Cordelia left for France. Lear sends the knight to tell Goneril that he wishes to speak to her.
Oswald re-enters, and when Lear asks him if he knows who he is, Oswald disrespectfully answers, “My lady’s father.” Angered by his rudeness, Lear strikes him. Oswald protests, and Kent interferes him. Lear is delighted and accepts Kent as his servant. The Fool enters and says that he will hire Kent too, and that Kent should take the Fool’s cap because he is a fool to follow one “ because of favor.” The Fool taunts Lear and says Lear has banished two of his daughters and given the third a blessing. The Fool continues to express his own and Lear’s grief through bitter jests. When Lear challenges him for calling him Fool, the Fool retorts that Lear has given away all his other titles.
When elder daughter Goneril arrives, king Lear asks her why she is frowning. The Fool points out that Lear once did not have to worry about whether she frowned or not. Goneril rebukes the Fool and complains to Lear that his knights are riotous and demands that he reduce their number. Lear is astonished at the change in Goneril since her profession of love for him. In a rage, he demands his horses be saddled for him to set out for Regan’s house, where he believes he will be better treated. When Goneril’s husband, Albany, enters, he tries to placate the king and admonishes his wife when she argues that she fears Lear’s knights pose a threat to their safety. Goneril ignores her husband and is cold to her father. Lear begins to realize he was mistaken to find fault with Cordelia and banish her. In rage, he curses and threatens Goneril. She maintains her composure. And Lear, in his fury, begins to feel his impotence. When Lear leaves for Regan’s castle, Goneril sends Oswald ahead with a letter informing her of what has gone on and encouraging her to adopt the same policy towards Lear that Goneril has.
Act 1, Scene 5
In Act 1, Scene 5 of “King Lear”, Lear sends Kent, who is in disguise, ahead with letters for Regan. After Kent leaves, Lear is left alone with the Fool, who continues to tease and chide him. However, Lear starts to realize the gravity of his situation. As the Fool continues his jests, Lear admits to himself, “I did her wrong,” referring to Cordelia. As the scene concludes, Lear is seen praying, hoping that he does not lose his sanity. This scene highlights Lear’s growing awareness of his mistakes and his fear of the consequences.
Act 2, Scene 1
At Gloucester’s castle, Edmund learns from one of Gloucester’s men that Regan and her husband, the Duke of Cornwall, will be arriving, and there is talk of war between Cornwall and Albany. Alone on stage, Edmund sees it as an opportunity to advance his own plot against his brother, Edgar, who is hiding in Edmund’s lodging. Edmund warns Edgar to flee undercover of night, informing him about the impending arrival of Cornwall, and questioning whether Edgar has spoken against him. Edgar denies speaking against him.
As Edgar flees, Edmund runs after him, pretending to catch him. Edmund wounds himself in the arm to make it appear as if Edgar inflicted the injury. When Gloucester arrives, he demands to know where “the villain” Edgar is. Edmund falsely accuses Edgar of attempting to murder Gloucester . Edmund adds that when he confronted Edgar about his lack of filial devotion, Edgar insulted him, calling him a bastard with no possessions or rights.
Gloucester promises to make Edmund his heir and sends servants to find and seize Edgar. Regan and Cornwall arrive, expressing sympathy for Gloucester over Edgar’s apparent betrayal. Regan tries to discredit Edgar, emphasizing his connection to Lear and questioning his association with Lear’s riotous knights. Edmund intervenes, confirming Edgar’s association with the riotous knights. Regan notices Edmund and realizes he is an ally.
Regan complains about the behavior of Lear’s knights and expresses concern about the quarrel between Lear and Goneril. She commiserates with Gloucester and seeks his advice, indicating that they have come for this purpose, preferring to meet her father away from home. The scene sets the stage for further political and familial conflicts within the play.
Act 2, Scene 2
Kent (disguised as Caius) and Oswald, messengers from Lear and Goneril respectively, arrive at Gloucester’s castle. When Oswald asks Kent where they can put their horses, Kent starts a quarrel with him, insults him, and eventually draws his sword, challenging him to fight. Oswald backs down from the challenge and cries out for help. Kent, angered by what he perceives as Oswald’s cowardice, beats him.
Edmund, Gloucester, Regan, and Cornwall rush in. Edmund, with his sword drawn, orders them to be separated. The group demands an explanation from the men Regan recognizes as the messengers from Lear and Goneril. In narrating what happened, Oswald appears to be the victim. Kent, still angry, speaks bluntly and insults his interrogators. Cornwall orders Kent to be put in the stocks until noon. Regan insists it to be all night. Gloucester pleads with them not to put the king’s messenger in the stocks, arguing that, although Kent is at fault, the punishment is an insult to Kent’s master, the king, who will correct him himself. Regan retorts that her sister, too, may take offense at her servant being “abused” and “assaulted” when he is carrying out her business.
When they are alone, Gloucester sympathizes with Kent (although he does not know the messenger is Kent). Kent, for his part, is calm. Alone in the stocks, he reads a letter from Cordelia, who has heard of the troubles and knows that Kent is still serving her father in disguise. Before falling asleep, Kent addresses the goddess Fortune, who is always pictured with a wheel, and beseeches Fortune to “Smile once more, turn thy wheel” and bring better times.
Act 2, Scene 3
The setting shifts to a location in the woods where Edgar has been hiding. Edgar addresses the audience, revealing that he has been pursued but has managed to escape. He decides to discard his identity and clothing, smear himself with dirt, inflict wounds and scratches on his body, and assume the persona of a madman named “Poor Tom”. This is his strategy to evade those who are hunting him.
Act 2, Scene 4
Lear arrives at Gloucester’s castle, puzzled as to why Regan was not at her castle and why she did not send back his messenger. He is shocked to see Kent in the stocks and demands an explanation. Kent explains the sequence of events: he had gone to Cornwall and Regan’s castle with letters from Lear, while Oswald had arrived with letters from Goneril. Upon seeing the letters, Regan immediately set out for Gloucester’s castle, instructing the messengers to follow. Oswald and Kent then met, quarreled, and Kent was put in the stocks.
When Lear asks to see Regan and Cornwall, Gloucester informs him that they refuse to speak with him. Lear is enraged at Gloucester, but his anger intensifies when he sees Kent in the stocks again. Gloucester goes to speak with Regan and Cornwall again, and this time they agree to meet Lear. Lear hopes that Regan still loves him, but he quickly realizes that she is just like her sister. As they speak with Lear, who demands to know who put his servant in the stocks, Goneril arrives. Seeing his two daughters united against him, showing no sense of obligation or gratitude, Lear is filled with rage. The sounds of the actual storm beginning outside echo his prayers and curses. Despite Gloucester’s appeals, Lear storms out of the castle into the storm. Regan orders the castle gates shut against him and declares anyone who attempts to aid the king a traitor.
Act 3, Scene 1
Kent and a Gentleman meet on a heath outside Gloucester’s castle during a growing storm. Kent inquires about Lear, and the Gentleman, whom Kent trusts, informs him that the king is out on the heath, battling the harsh elements, accompanied only by the Fool.
Kent shares with the Gentleman that French spies in the service of Albany and Cornwall have reported that the two dukes might be preparing for war against each other. He asks the Gentleman to go to Dover, where Cordelia and a French force have landed, to report on the king’s situation. Kent gives the man some money and a ring to present to Cordelia as proof of his mission. The Gentleman agrees to undertake the mission, and they both leave to search for the king.
Act 3, Scene 2
Lear and the Fool are caught in a brutal storm on a barren heath. Lear, bareheaded and defiant, rages against the storm, equating its oppressive force with the cruelty of his daughters. The Fool, shivering in the cold, advises Lear to seek shelter from his daughters, but Lear refuses.
Kent finds Lear in this state, ranting against all who have committed crimes and branding himself as “more sinned against than sinning”. Kent leads Lear to a hovel on the heath for protection from the storm. As they move towards the hovel, Lear calms down. He acknowledges his growing madness and expresses concern for the Fool’s well-being, asking if he is cold and expressing compassion for his suffering.
As they leave for the hovel, the Fool recites a comic verse suggesting that open, virtuous, and honest relations between people are impossible, and that cheating, dishonesty, and hypocrisy are the norm, leading to confusion.
Act 3, Scene 3
Inside his castle, Gloucester expresses his dissatisfaction with the lack of compassion shown by Cornwall and Regan towards Lear. He informs Edmund that when he sought permission to help Lear, they seized control of his house and household. Edmund reacts with outrage, condemning their behavior as savage and unnatural. Gloucester shares information about the growing enmity between Albany and Cornwall and mentions dangerous letters regarding help for the king, urging them to side with Lear. After Gloucester exits, Edmund decides to betray his father by informing Cornwall and Regan of Gloucester’s disloyalty to advance his own interests.
Act 3, Scene 4
Guided by Kent, Lear and the Fool arrive at a hovel, and Kent invites Lear to go inside for shelter. Lear, moved by Kent’s kindness and devotion, reflects on the storm within himself, expressing self-pity and recalling his daughters’ ingratitude. Kent encourages Lear to enter the hovel, and Lear instructs the Fool to go in first while he stays outside to pray and eventually sleep. In his prayer, Lear confronts his own suffering, expresses pity for others, and acknowledges his past neglect of those in need. The Fool rushes out of the hovel in fear as Edgar, disguised as Poor Tom, is heard within. Lear mistakes Poor Tom for a kindred soul suffering at the hands of his daughters.
Act 3, Scene 5
Inside Gloucester’s house, Cornwall reacts furiously to the news of Gloucester’s supposed disloyalty, vowing revenge. Edmund pretends to grieve for betraying his father, framing it as a victory of loyalty to Cornwall over natural filial loyalty. Cornwall confers Gloucester’s titles and possessions onto Edmund, declaring that Edmund will find in him the father he has lost in Gloucester. The scenes portray the increasing chaos, betrayal, and suffering within the characters’ lives.
Act 3, Scene 6
Gloucester brings Lear and his companions to a farmhouse and leaves them with Kent. Poor Tom, who is actually Edgar in disguise, speaks of the demons tormenting him, and Lear sets up a mock trial to accuse his daughters. Lear eventually falls asleep, and Gloucester returns to tell Kent that he must carry Lear to Dover. Gloucester has discovered that Cornwall and Regan are plotting to kill the king and anyone aiding him. Kent and the Fool leave, bearing Lear, while Gloucester returns to his castle. Alone, Edgar speaks a soliloquy in his own voice, reflecting on the intense suffering caused by the mind and praying for the king’s safety.
Act 3, Scene 7
Cornwall gives Goneril letters to take swiftly to her husband, Albany, informing him of the French army landing at Dover. Cornwall sends Edmund along with Goneril, stating it’s not fit for Edmund to witness what he will do to Gloucester, whom he calls a traitor. Before Goneril and Edmund depart, Oswald informs Cornwall that Gloucester has had the king conveyed to Dover for safety. Cornwall orders servants to find Gloucester and bring him bound before him. In their presence, Gloucester begs them to consider their guest status, but Regan and Cornwall curse and vilify him. They interrogate him about the king’s whereabouts, and Gloucester reveals he sent Lear to Dover to protect him from Regan’s cruelty. In a brutal act, Cornwall gouges out one of Gloucester’s eyes, leading to a fight between Cornwall and a servant who tries to intervene. Regan kills the servant, and Cornwall, fatally wounded, gouges out Gloucester’s other eye. Gloucester is then cast out, and Cornwall dies. Gloucester’s servants decide to seek Poor Tom’s help, and one of them goes to get egg whites to apply to Gloucester’s eye sockets. The scenes depict the escalating brutality and suffering experienced by the characters.
Act 4, Scene 1
Edgar is alone, contemplating his own misfortunes and the vanity of life. He has reached a state of contentment, accepting that change in his fortune can only be for the better. As he speaks, he sees his father Gloucester in the distance, being led. Gloucester asks the Old Man with him to leave, expressing his inability to see a way forward. The Old Man is reluctant, but Gloucester insists he has no way and therefore needs no eyes. Gloucester then offers a prayer for Edgar, expressing a wish to touch him again. Edgar, possibly overhearing this, returns to his thoughts and acknowledges the severity of his father’s mutilation. The Old Man, Gloucester, and Edgar (whom they mistake for Poor Tom) agree that Edgar will serve as Gloucester’s guide, leading him to Dover.
Act 4, Scene 2
Goneril and Edmund arrive at Goneril’s house. Oswald reports to Goneril that her husband, Albany, is disgusted with the actions against the king. Realizing she cannot rely on Albany, Goneril sends Edmund back to command Cornwall’s forces while she takes her husband’s place at the head of her own forces. Goneril and Edmund also become lovers, with Edmund vowing allegiance to her even in the face of death. Albany reproaches Goneril for her behavior, condemning her mistreatment of Lear. Goneril dismisses his concerns and fights with him. Their argument is interrupted by a messenger who brings news of Cornwall’s death and the blinding of Gloucester. Goneril considers Cornwall’s death an opportunity to pursue Edmund further, now that her sister is a widow. Alone with the messenger, Albany learns of Edmund’s betrayal of Gloucester. In a prayer, Albany thanks Gloucester for helping the king and vows to avenge his eyes. The scenes portray the continued turmoil and shifting alliances among the characters.
Act 4, Scene 3
Kent meets the Gentleman whom he had sent with letters to Cordelia at Dover. The Gentleman describes Cordelia’s heartbreaking responses to the ill-treatment of Lear. Kent learns that Lear, when lucid, refuses to see Cordelia due to deep shame for the harm he has caused her. Kent takes charge of the Gentleman and goes about some secret business for the sake of the king.
Act 4, Scene 4
Cordelia discusses her father’s condition with a doctor and some soldiers. Lear is found running around the meadows and hillsides of Dover adorned with flowers. Cordelia requests the soldiers to bring him to her. The doctor suggests the healing power of sleep and mentions herbs that can induce it. A messenger informs Cordelia that the British forces are marching toward Dover. Cordelia, already aware of this, asserts that the French army is in England solely to rescue Lear, not to conquer English territory.
Act 4, Scene 5
Regan engages in conversation with Goneril’s steward, Oswald, who carries a letter from Goneril to Edmund. Regan attempts to persuade Oswald to show her the letter, but he remains loyal to his mistress and refuses. Despite Oswald’s resistance, Regan reveals her interest in Edmund and instructs Oswald to convey this information to Goneril and to deliver a message to Edmund on her behalf. As a parting note, she reminds Oswald that if he encounters Gloucester during his travels, there is a reward for killing him. This scene illustrates the complex web of relationships and schemes unfolding among the characters.
Act 4, Scene 6
Edgar and Gloucester are on a field in Dover. Edgar convinces his blind father that they are climbing to the top of a steep cliff. Gloucester, in despair, wishes to throw himself off. Edgar hasn’t revealed his true identity to his father. As Gloucester jumps, he calls out a blessing for Edgar. Of course, he only falls to the ground at his own feet, but Edgar speaks to him now in a different voice from Poor Tom’s, telling him what a great distance he has fallen. Gloucester believes that his self-destructive wish was the influence of a fiend and promises his apparently new acquaintance that from now on he will bear his affliction until it cries out ‘Enough.’ As Edgar is advising his father to bear free and patient thoughts, he sees Lear, adorned in flowers, wandering through the meadows. Lear discusses his mortality, condemns hypocrisy, power, and the injustices of authority. Most strikingly, he vents a rage against female sexuality and lust in general, extrapolating from the behavior of his two elder daughters. As he is speaking, Cordelia’s men find him. Lear exits running as they pursue him.
Edgar questions one of Cordelia’s men, who tells him that the armies of Goneril and Regan are quickly approaching. Gloucester prays for patience and asks Edgar who he is, but Edgar only identifies himself as a poor man made tame to fortune’s blows, that he has learned pity through his own suffering. As they are speaking, Oswald enters. Seeing Gloucester, he draws his sword and goes to kill him. Gloucester blesses his effort, but Edgar intervenes, kills Oswald, and saves his father. Dying, Oswald asks Edgar to bury him and gives him his purse and a letter to give to Edmund. Edgar unseals and reads the letter. In it Goneril, proclaiming her love for him, reminds Edmund to kill Albany, her husband, so that she can be his. Edgar pockets the letter in order to show it to Albany; hearing the approaching army, Edgar conveys his father to the care of a friend and safety.
Act 4, Scene 7
Cordelia enters with Kent, praising his goodness and suggesting that he may remove his disguise. However, Kent requests to remain hidden a bit longer, to which she agrees. She then asks a doctor about Lear’s condition. The doctor suggests waking Lear up. As music plays, Cordelia speaks gently and compassionately to Lear, offering her kisses as a form of healing.
Upon waking, Lear believes he has returned from death and expresses that it’s wrong to have been brought back to life. He is disoriented and speaks softly, admitting that he is a foolish man, possibly not in his right mind, and he believes that Cordelia is with him. “And so I am, I am,” she responds, weeping with joy. Lear expresses his readiness to take poison, which he assumes she would want to give him since he has wronged her. He acknowledges that while he has done no harm to Goneril and Regan, Cordelia has reason to be angry. “No cause, no cause,” she whispers to him. He repeats that he is old and foolish and pleads with her to be patient with him. She leaves with him, taking him for a walk.
Kent remains with the Gentleman, who asks him news about whether Cornwall was killed and if Edgar is with Kent in Germany. They agree that the impending war will be bloody, but Kent privately asserts that the war will ultimately determine things for better or worse.
Act 5, Scene 1
Edmund is with Regan, awaiting the arrival of Goneril and Albany. He is concerned that Oswald has not yet arrived. Regan begins to question Edmund out of jealousy about the nature and extent of his relationship with Goneril. He assures Regan that he has not been unfaithful. When Goneril and Albany arrive, Albany clarifies that his quarrel is not with Lear and Cordelia or any of their party, but only against the French army since it is on British territory. Edmund commends him for speaking nobly and they arrange to meet soon to plan for the battle. When Albany is alone, Edgar appears in disguise, gives him a letter, and instructs him to read it before the battle. After the battle, if Albany’s side is victorious, Edgar tells him to sound a trumpet and he will come and, in battle with Edmund, prove the truth of the accusations against him. Edgar departs and Edmund re-enters. He and Albany discuss strategy. Alone, Edmund tries to decide which of the two sisters he should choose and decides that if Goneril wants him, it’s up to her to do away with her husband, but Edmund will ally himself with Albany for the battle. As for the mercy Albany intends to show Lear and Cordelia should he defeat them, Edmund says, they will never see it: they block the path of his ambition.
Act 5, Scene 2
Edgar leaves Gloucester by a tree, away from the battlefield, and promises to bring good news if he returns. A battle ensues. Lear’s supporters lose. Lear and Cordelia are taken prisoner. Gloucester falls into depression. Edgar chides him for having bleak thoughts, saying that death comes at the time it ought to come. And Gloucester accepts his words.
Act 5, Scene 3
Edmund instructs his guards to imprison Lear and Cordelia and await further instructions. Cordelia reassures Lear, expressing that they aren’t the first ones who had good intentions but faced dire consequences. She is not worried about herself and can endure whatever fate brings, but is saddened by Lear’s suffering. However, Lear sees no reason for regret and envisions their imprisonment as a chance to be like birds in a cage, singing, sharing stories, blessing each other, and observing the world’s affairs from a distance. He promises that they will never be separated again. Edmund commands them to be taken to prison and sends a captain with orders to execute Lear and Cordelia.
Albany arrives, praising Edmund’s bravery in battle, and requests custody of Lear and Cordelia. Edmund informs him that they have been imprisoned and argues that releasing them would stir public sympathy and turn the people against Albany and himself. He suggests that decisions about Lear and Cordelia should be postponed until they have recovered from the battle. Albany, in a fit of rage, tells Edmund that he was a wartime ally but holds no further power. Regan interjects, stating that Edmund led her forces and, due to their alliance, could be considered Albany’s brother. Goneril interrupts her, and the sisters bicker over who will have Edmund. During their dispute, Regan admits she is unwell and cannot fully engage in the argument. When Goneril questions Regan about her intentions to marry Edmund, Albany steps in, arresting Edmund for treason and revealing that Edmund is already betrothed to Goneril. He then orders a trumpet to be sounded, declaring that if no champion comes forward to fight Edmund, he will do so himself. Regan complains of feeling ill again, and Goneril, in an aside, reveals to the audience that she has poisoned her. At the third trumpet sound, an anonymous champion challenges Edmund, claiming his name is forgotten but he is of noble birth. They duel, and Edmund is defeated. Goneril objects, but Albany silences her with her letter plotting his murder. She exits the stage, refusing to speak further. Albany sends a servant to keep an eye on her, stating that she is desperate.
Edgar reveals his identity and forgives Edmund, who confesses his guilt. Albany embraces Edgar, assuring him that he never despised Gloucester. Edgar acknowledges this and then explains how he survived and learned of Gloucester’s misfortunes. He narrates how he took care of his father and how Gloucester died of mixed emotions of joy and grief when Edgar revealed his identity before the fight. He also mentions that he has encountered Kent, who has been caring for Lear in disguise. As he speaks, a Gentleman rushes in with a bloody knife, announcing that Goneril has poisoned Regan and stabbed herself. Edmund admits that he was engaged to both sisters and that in death, they are united. Kent then enters, intending to bid farewell to Lear, and is surprised not to find him there. Albany exclaims that they have forgotten something important. Edmund admits that he has ordered someone to kill Lear and Cordelia and sends a messenger to the prison to prevent the execution. But it’s too late. Lear enters, carrying Cordelia’s lifeless body in his arms and wailing in sorrow. He declares that he killed the man who hanged Cordelia and reminisces about his past strength. He checks if Cordelia is still breathing, and as he mourns for her and remembers his lost strength, he dies, pointing at her lips. When Edgar tries to revive him, Kent tells him to let Lear be; he is now free from the world’s torments. Albany declares that Kent and Edgar will now rule together. However, Kent insists that he must follow his master. Edgar becomes king and delivers a eulogy, stating that those who are alive will never endure as much as Lear did, nor live as long.
MEDIA ADAPTATIONS
Film
“King Lear” (1971): Directed by Peter Brook, this film is known for its stark and minimalist approach to Shakespeare’s play. Paul Scofield plays the titular role, and the film captures the intense emotional and psychological aspects of the story.
“Ran” (1985): Directed by Akira Kurosawa, “Ran” is a Japanese adaptation of “King Lear,” set in feudal Japan. It explores themes of power, betrayal, and family conflict. The film received critical acclaim for its cinematography and storytelling.
“King Lear” (2018): Directed by Richard Eyre, this adaptation stars Anthony Hopkins as King Lear and Emma Thompson as Goneril. It was produced by the BBC and Amazon Studios and received positive reviews for its performances and modern interpretation.
Television
“King Lear” (1983): A TV adaptation directed by Michael Elliott, this version features Laurence Olivier in the role of King Lear. It was part of the acclaimed “Olivier’s Shakespeare” series.
“King Lear” (2008): This television film directed by Trevor Nunn stars Ian McKellen as Lear and also features Romola Garai, Frances Barber, and Sylvester McCoy. It was praised for its strong performances.
CHARACTERS
Captain
The Captain, under Edmund’s command, takes Lear and Cordelia into custody when they are captured and executes Cordelia in the prison.
Cordelia
Cordelia, Lear’s youngest and most cherished daughter, is disowned by Lear when she refuses to publicly declare her love for him in a flattering manner. She marries the King of France and leads a French army to England to save her father after hearing about her sisters’ mistreatment of him. After the French forces are defeated, she is captured and imprisoned with Lear, and is hanged in prison on Edmund’s orders.
Doctor
The Doctor, in Cordelia’s camp, is responsible for taking care of Lear.
Duke of Albany
The Duke of Albany, Goneril’s husband and Lear’s son-in-law, becomes disgusted by the king’s mistreatment by his daughters and reprimands Goneril, calling her a monster. After Cordelia’s army is defeated and Lear and Cordelia are captured, Albany accuses Edmund of high treason.
Duke of Burgundy
The Duke of Burgundy, a suitor for Cordelia’s hand in marriage, refuses to marry her when Lear withdraws her dowry.
Duke of Cornwall
The Duke of Cornwall, Regan’s husband and Lear’s son-in-law, blinds Gloucester because of his loyalty to Lear. One of his servants, appalled by this act, tries to stop the mutilation but fails. The servant kills Cornwall in a fight and is himself killed when Regan stabs him in the back during the fight.
Earl of Gloucester
The Earl of Gloucester, the father of Edgar and Edmund, is a kind-hearted libertine who is betrayed by one son in his old age and cared for by his other son after he has been ruined. Despite Regan’s prohibition against aiding the king in the storm, Gloucester searches for Lear on the heath and brings him to shelter. For his support of Lear’s cause, Gloucester’s eyes are gouged out.
Edgar
Edgar, Gloucester’s legitimate son and Edmund’s older brother, is declared a traitor by Gloucester when Edmund deceives Gloucester into believing that Edgar wants to kill him to take over his lands and title. Edgar flees and assumes the identity of a madman called Poor Tom. He and Lear meet on the heath during the storm and engage in mad conversation. After Gloucester is blinded, Edgar, as Tom, takes care of him, tries to prevent Gloucester from falling into despair, and leads him to Dover, where Lear has been taken to meet Cordelia. After the French forces are defeated, Edgar reveals himself to his father and challenges Edmund to single combat without revealing his identity and kills him. After the death of all the main characters, Edgar becomes king.
Edmund
Edmund, Gloucester’s illegitimate younger son, is a refined, proud, attractive, cunning, and malevolent individual. He pits his father against his brother and then betrays his father. Edmund pledges his loyalty to both Goneril and Regan, leaving them to fight over him. As an atheist, he believes that there is no law superior to nature and that he has the power and therefore the right to shape his destiny according to his will, manipulating situations for his own benefit without considering the welfare of others.
First Servant
The First Servant, who serves Cornwall, attempts to stop his master from blinding Gloucester. During a duel with Cornwall, Regan stabs him in the back.
Fool
The Fool, Lear’s jester, is bitter about Cordelia’s banishment and constantly scolds Lear for it and for foolishly handing over his power to Goneril and Regan. The Fool speaks in riddles and comic verse, conveying a sense of wisdom and uncanny insight.
Goneril
Goneril, Lear’s eldest daughter, is a sharp-tongued, selfish woman with insatiable desires and limitless cruelty. She betrays her father, sister, and husband. She transitions from hypocritically declaring her love and devotion for Lear to waging war against him during the course of the play. She dominates her husband and expresses her disdain for him when he opposes her.
Kent
Kent is a faithful and loyal servant to Lear. He incurs Lear’s anger when he insists on opposing Lear’s rash and hasty banishment of Cordelia, resulting in Kent’s banishment. Instead of leaving Lear, he disguises himself and becomes Lear’s servant as Caius. Kent maintains contact with Cordelia. When she arrives at Dover with a French army, Kent brings Lear to Dover, removing him from the control of his two elder daughters. Kent is the only character in the play who has contact with each of the other significant characters.
King of France
The King of France, one of Cordelia’s suitors, marries her despite Lear disowning her and withdrawing her dowry.
King Lear
King Lear unleashes enormous destructive forces when he abdicates his throne, divides his kingdom among his two eldest daughters, and banishes his youngest after she refuses to express her love in the ritual profession of devotion Lear demands in a public ceremony. When Lear’s two elder daughters betray their professions and Lear is cast out into a storm, he is overwhelmed with grief, bitterness, and a realization of his vanity. His elder daughters describe him as rash and self-unaware. Kent finds that Lear embodies the authority he wishes to serve. The Fool thinks he is a fool and deserves to be punished for getting old before becoming wise. Cordelia loves him. After initially pitying himself when Goneril and Regan betray him, Lear grieves for having wronged Cordelia.
Old Man
After Gloucester is blinded, the Old Man leads him to Poor Tom.
Oswald
Oswald, Goneril’s steward, serves as her messenger to Regan and Edmund. He is self-serving, cowardly, and disrespectful to Lear. When he finds blind Gloucester, he tries to kill him for the reward, but Edgar kills Oswald instead.
Poor Tom
See Edgar
Regan
Regan, Lear’s second daughter, is a double of her sister Goneril in terms of treachery and cruelty. Regan is responsible for Gloucester’s brutal blinding. She dies poisoned by Goneril in their contest over Edmund.
Second Servant
Cornwall’s second servant expresses outrage at the violence his master has inflicted on Gloucester after Cornwall has gouged out his eyes. The second servant leads blind Gloucester to Poor Tom.
Third Servant
Cornwall’s third servant takes it upon himself to aid Gloucester after Cornwall has gouged out his eyes by getting flax and the whites of eggs to apply to his eyes.
Themes
Egoism
Characters embodying egoism: Lear, Edmund, Goneril, Regan, Cornwall, Oswald, Captain, Burgundy, and Gloucester.
Sacrificial characters: Cordelia, Edgar, Kent, the servant defending Gloucester, the King of France, and Gloucester’s loyalty to Lear.
Description: The play highlights the contrast between characters driven by selfish desires (egoists) and those motivated by love and adherence to higher principles (sacrificial characters).
The Gods
References to gods: Lear and Kent swear by Apollo, while Gloucester believes in planetary influence and sees the gods as capricious.
Nature of the gods: The play, set in pre-Christian Britain, explores the power and nature of the gods. Human actions partially define the gods’ nature, as seen in Lear’s prayer on the heath.
Varieties of Love
Lear’s perspective: Love as a measurable quantity, demanding professions of love from his daughters.
Cordelia’s perspective: Love as a quality, involving tender recognition, self-sacrifice, and devotion to truth.
Edmund’s perspective: Love as power and recognition, tied to others’ surrender to him.
Goneril and Regan’s perspective: Love as lust and self-love, driven by personal desires rather than devotion to truth.
Edgar and Kent’s perspective: Love as self-sacrifice in service to truth and others.
Loyalty and Betrayal
Loyalty tests: Lear’s demand for professions of love as a loyalty test, exposing the characters’ fears of betrayal.
Betrayals: Cordelia’s refusal to comply is seen as betrayal by Lear. Goneril, Regan, and Edmund betray their family members, leading to madness in Lear due to his inability to comprehend these betrayals.
Madness
Instances of madness: Lear’s fear of madness, his apparent descent into madness, and Edgar’s assumed madness as part of his disguise.
Effect of suffering on madness: Lear’s mad utterances on the heath and with Gloucester in Dover contain sanity and wisdom. Edgar’s feigned madness also serves as a disguise but lacks the profound insights expressed by Lear.
Ideas of Nature
Edmund’s perspective: Edmund considers Nature as his goddess, representing the impulses of life independent of higher powers. He views his own will as a force of nature sufficient for governing his actions.
Cordelia’s perspective: Cordelia, in contrast, is governed by forces above Nature, namely duty and love. She is portrayed as redeeming nature from the curse brought by Goneril and Regan, who, in their cruelty to their father, are considered unnatural.
Seeing and Blindness
Symbolic vision: Throughout the play, Shakespeare contrasts physical sight with metaphorical sight, extending the concept of seeing to perceiving truth and understanding correctly.
Kent’s plea: Kent urges Lear to “see better” as he tries to prevent him from making disastrous decisions. Gloucester, after being blinded, acknowledges that he “stumbled when he saw.”
Cordelia’s confession: Cordelia acknowledges a fault in vision, emphasizing that they are not the first to have good intentions result in the worst outcomes.
Sexual Revulsion
Portrayal of sexuality: Sexuality is depicted as a grim and dangerous force in the play.
Edmund and Gloucester: Edmund, portrayed as a villain, is a bastard, and his father, Gloucester, is introduced as an unrepentant libertine.
Goneril and Regan: Both Goneril and Regan are depicted as sexually rapacious and power-hungry. Their adulterous passions lead to tragic consequences, including poisoning and suicide.
Lear’s indictment: Lear expresses severe condemnation of sexuality in Act 4, Scene 6, particularly focusing on the vices associated with female sexuality. His speech vividly portrays a hellish vision of female sexuality.
Style
Blank Verse
Definition: Most of “King Lear” is composed in unrhymed iambic pentameter, commonly known as blank verse.
Structure: Pentameter signifies that each line consists of five feet, with a foot comprising two syllables or beats. The iambic pattern involves an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.
Example: The line ‘‘With reservation of an hundred knights,’’ (act 1, scene 1, line 135) can be scanned as ‘‘with RE/serVA/tion OF/an HUN/dred KNIGHTS.’’ The iambic rhythm mirrors the natural cadence of spoken English.
Soliloquy
Definition: A soliloquy is a speech delivered by a character while alone on stage, revealing inner thoughts and feelings to the audience.
Example: Edmund’s soliloquy in Act 1, Scene 2, where he declares, ‘‘Thou, Nature, art my goddess; to thy law / My services are bound,’’ provides insight into his character and motivations.
Double Plot
Integration of Plots: “King Lear” integrates two distinct plots—the Lear plot and the Gloucester plot. The Lear plot predominates until the end of Act 3, after which the Gloucester plot gains prominence.
Convergence: Both plots converge towards the end, particularly in the complex dynamics of the Edmund, Goneril, and Regan triangle. Edmund’s ambition to ascend to Lear’s status drives the need to eliminate Lear and Cordelia.
Spectacle
On-Stage Violence: In contrast to classic Greek tragedy, where violence is often performed off-stage and narrated, “King Lear” follows the Elizabethan and Jacobean practice of presenting violence as an on-stage spectacle.
Example: The on-stage blinding of Gloucester’s eyes is a notable instance where Shakespeare employs spectacle to intensify the impact of the tragedy.
Compare and Contrast
Audience and Reputation of Shakespeare
1600s: Shakespeare’s plays were immensely popular among a diverse audience, and he was considered a leading playwright of his time.
Today: Shakespeare’s plays continue to attract a broad audience, and he is universally acknowledged as one of the greatest playwrights in history.
Adaptations of Shakespeare’s Works
1600s: Shakespeare often adapted older plays, stories, and historical narratives for his own plays.
Today: Shakespeare’s plays serve as the foundation for numerous adaptations in various mediums, including drama, cinema, and narrative re-workings.
Monarchical Power and Parliament
1600s: During James I’s reign, he believed in the absolute power of the king and faced conflicts with the power of Parliament.
Today: The English monarchy is subservient to Parliament, holding primarily ceremonial roles with limited political influence.
Religious and Political Conflicts
1600s: In 1605, the Gunpowder Plot, driven by political conflict within the context of religious strife, aimed to blow up the Houses of Parliament but was thwarted.
Today: In 2005, the London bombings carried out by Islamic partisans were part of a global political conflict often framed as a religious struggle involving Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.
Critical Overview
“King Lear,” one of William Shakespeare’s most celebrated tragedies, has been a subject of profound critical examination spanning centuries. The diversity of critical perspectives reflects the complexity and depth of the play, exploring themes such as human nature, power, madness, and the consequences of flawed decisions. The critical overview of “King Lear” has evolved over time, encompassing various periods and approaches.
Nineteenth-Century Praise
In the nineteenth century, “King Lear” received widespread acclaim from prominent literary figures. Critics such as W. A. Schlegel, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Charles Lamb, William Hazlitt, and A. C. Swinburne regarded the play with awe. Charles Lamb, for instance, emphasized Lear’s intellectual greatness and the storms within his mind. Samuel Johnson, as early as 1765, celebrated the play’s ability to captivate and agitate emotions, solidifying its place among Shakespeare’s masterpieces.
A. C. Bradley’s Dual Perspective
In the early twentieth century, A. C. Bradley’s influential work bridged the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Despite noting structural difficulties in the final acts, Bradley considered “King Lear” Shakespeare’s greatest achievement. His dual perspective, viewing it both as a drama and a monumental work akin to other artistic masterpieces, highlighted the play’s multifaceted nature.
Twentieth-Century Psychoanalytic and Cultural Perspectives
The twentieth century witnessed the integration of psychoanalytic perspectives into the study of “King Lear.” Sigmund Freud and subsequent psychoanalytic scholars examined characters such as Cordelia, viewing her as embodying the silence of death. The play’s exploration of familial relationships and psychological depth became central to these analyses.
Philosophical and Existential Interpretations
Twentieth-century scholars also delved into the philosophical and existential dimensions of “King Lear.” John Danby’s “Shakespeare’s Doctrine of Nature” explored the play’s vision of Nature, while William Elton’s “King Lear and the Gods” engaged with questions about the gods’ role in human motives. The play was seen as an intellectual statement about the nature of existence, human benevolence or malevolence, and the essence of being human.
New Historicism and Contextual Understanding
Towards the end of the century, the rise of New Historicism redirected attention to understanding “King Lear” in its historical context. Scholars like Ben Ross Schneider, Jr., and Terry Reilly examined the play in light of stoicism, Montaigne’s philosophy, and the inheritance laws of sixteenth and seventeenth-century Kent. This contextual approach aimed to unveil the play’s relevance to its original audience and cultural milieu.
Contemporary Perspectives
In contemporary times, “King Lear” remains a subject of continued critical engagement. Scholars employ diverse lenses, including feminist, postcolonial, and performance-oriented approaches, to explore new dimensions of the play. The enduring legacy of “King Lear” lies in its ability to elicit fresh interpretations and resonate with evolving cultural and societal concerns.
In conclusion, the critical overview of “King Lear” has traversed diverse intellectual landscapes, reflecting changing philosophical paradigms and cultural contexts. The play’s enduring appeal lies in its capacity to invite multifaceted interpretations, making it a timeless masterpiece that continues to captivate and challenge audiences and scholars alike.
