What is Literature
The word Literature is derived from the Latin term littera, meaning “a letter of the alphabet.” In the classical world, particularly in ancient Rome, the related word litteratura referred simply to learning or the skill of reading and writing. At that time, no hierarchy existed between creative and utilitarian writing. A merchant’s record, a legal document, and a poetic composition were all considered part of the same domain because all were products of writing.
However, as human civilization advanced, the definition underwent a process of specialization. With the advent of the printing press in the 15th century and the explosion of written material, society began to differentiate between mere data and “Art.” Over time, the term Literature came to denote works valued for their artistic form, emotional depth, and lasting significance. In the modern sense, therefore, items such as telephone directories, scientific textbooks, or train schedules may be texts, but they are not considered Literature, because their purpose is functional rather than aesthetic.
1. Ezra Pound: “Great literature is simply language charged with meaning to the utmost possible degree.”
Ezra Pound, a modernist poet, believed that literature is distinguished by its intensity of expression. Ordinary language communicates information, but literary language is compressed, musical, and suggestive. Every word is carefully chosen to carry maximum emotional, intellectual, and sensory impact.
Literature is not about saying more—it is about saying more with less.
2. Matthew Arnold: Literature is “a criticism of life under the conditions fixed for such criticism by the laws of poetic truth and poetic beauty.”
Matthew Arnold saw literature as a serious evaluation of human life. For him, poetry and prose must address fundamental questions—truth, morality, suffering, duty, and happiness. Literature acts as a guide that helps humanity reflect upon its own behavior and values.
Literature examines life and teaches us how to live meaningfully.
3. Oscar Wilde: “Literature always anticipates life. It does not copy it, but moulds it to its purpose.”
Oscar Wilde rejected the belief that literature merely imitates reality. Instead, he argued that literature actually shapes how we see reality. Art creates patterns, ideals, and images that influence human perception and behavior. In this sense, life often follows the models created by literature.
Literature does not mirror life; it forms and transforms it.
4. C.S. Lewis: “Literature adds to reality, it does not simply describe it. It irrigates the deserts that our lives have already become.”
C.S. Lewis believed that daily life can become narrow and monotonous. Literature enlarges our experience by allowing us to see through other people’s eyes, feel unfamiliar emotions, and inhabit different worlds. It enriches existence rather than merely recording it.
Literature expands human consciousness and deepens empathy.
5. Louis de Bonald: “Literature is the expression of society.”
Louis de Bonald regarded literature as a product of its historical and cultural environment. A literary work expresses the beliefs, tensions, and structures of the society from which it emerges. Thus, studying literature also means studying civilization.
Literature reflects the collective life and values of an age.
The De Quincey Distinction: Literature of Knowledge and Literature of Power
In 1848, the English essayist Thomas De Quincey proposed an important classification of writing based not on subject matter, but on purpose and lasting value. He divided all written works into two main categories: the Literature of Knowledge and the Literature of Power. This distinction explains why some books become outdated while others remain meaningful across centuries.
A. The Literature of Knowledge
Purpose
The Literature of Knowledge exists to inform, instruct, and explain. Its aim is the clear communication of facts and ideas. It appeals mainly to the reader’s intellect and reasoning.
Nature
This kind of writing is practical and utilitarian. It functions like a tool that helps us understand the world or perform tasks efficiently. Its success depends on accuracy and clarity rather than artistic expression.
Lifespan
Because knowledge constantly changes, this literature is temporary. As new discoveries are made, older works lose relevance and are replaced. A scientific textbook from the nineteenth century, once authoritative, may now be outdated.
Examples
- Encyclopedias
- Scientific and technical manuals
- News reports
- Instructional texts
These works are necessary for progress, but their value is limited to their usefulness at a particular time.
B. The Literature of Power
Purpose
The Literature of Power seeks to move, inspire, and awaken emotion and imagination. Instead of giving information, it deepens our understanding of human experience.
Nature
It is not instrumental but transformative. De Quincey compared it to an oar or sail that propels the human spirit. It deals with universal truths—love, grief, ambition, morality—that do not change with time.
Lifespan
This literature is permanent and enduring. Unlike textbooks, it is not revised or replaced, because it expresses aspects of human nature that remain constant. Ancient works can still affect modern readers with equal intensity.
Examples
- Epics and tragedies
- Poetry and great novels
- Philosophical or reflective writings
Such works survive because they speak to shared human emotions rather than temporary facts.
The Criteria of Literature
Scholars and critics generally agree that not every written work can be called Literature. For a text to attain that status—often marked with a capital “L” to indicate its place within the literary tradition—it must exhibit certain essential qualities. These qualities distinguish imaginative art from ordinary writing and give literary works their depth, coherence, and lasting appeal. Four major criteria are commonly identified.
- Artistic Unity (Organic Form)
A literary work functions like a living organism in which all parts are interconnected. Characters, settings, events, symbols, and even minor details must contribute to the central meaning or emotional effect. Nothing exists merely for decoration; every element serves a purpose within the whole.
This idea is often explained through the Chekhov’s Gun principle: if a writer introduces an object—such as a gun—in the early part of a story, it must later become significant. Otherwise, it should not be there at all. Great literature avoids randomness.
Nothing in great literature is accidental. If a character wears red, it signifies passion, danger, or sin. If it rains, the weather reflects the internal state of the characters. The work is a cohesive whole where the removal of one part would damage the structure of the entire piece.
2. Suggestiveness (Ambiguity and Subtext)
Unlike scientific or technical writing, literature does not explain everything directly. It often communicates indirectly, leaving space for interpretation. Meaning is suggested rather than stated, allowing readers to participate imaginatively in the creation of significance.
This principle is closely related to Ernest Hemingway’s Iceberg Theory, which proposes that only a small portion of meaning appears on the surface, while the greater part remains implied beneath it. Dialogue and events are visible, but emotions, motivations, and symbolic meanings are largely unstated.
Thus:
- Literature invites reflection rather than giving instructions.
- Symbols and imagery open the door to multiple interpretations.
- Readers discover meaning rather than simply receiving it.
A scientific text defines the heart as an organ that pumps blood; a poem may present the heart as a symbol of love, sorrow, or courage.
- Permanence (Universality)
Literature endures because it addresses experiences that are universal rather than temporary. To survive across generations, a work must transcend the particular circumstances of its origin and speak to fundamental aspects of human life.
Although a play like Hamlet is set in a specific historical context, its central concerns—doubt, revenge, moral responsibility, and mortality—are shared by people in every age. Such themes remain meaningful regardless of cultural change.
Works that focus too narrowly on passing fashions or immediate political issues may achieve temporary popularity, but they rarely achieve lasting literary status. Permanence depends on the ability to express truths that remain relevant to humanity as a whole.
4. Style (Aesthetic Excellence)
Style refers to the distinctive manner in which a writer uses language. Literature is not defined only by what it says, but by how it says it. Through careful craftsmanship, language becomes an artistic medium capable of producing beauty, rhythm, and emotional resonance.
Important aspects of literary style include:
Elevated Diction: Thoughtful and expressive word choice.
Syntax: Arrangement of sentences to create emphasis, balance, or musical flow.
Voice: The unique tone or personality that marks an author’s writing.
Because of style, reading literature becomes an aesthetic experience. The pleasure of expression itself—its sound, rhythm, and imagery—adds value beyond the information conveyed.
The Functions of Literature
Why has the storytelling instinct survived from the Paleolithic campfire to the digital age? Literature performs essential psychological and sociological functions.
- The Horatian Principle: Dulce et Utile
The Roman poet Horace, in his critical treatise Ars Poetica, proposed that literature must harmonize two essential purposes:
Dulce (Sweetness): Literature should delight. It must engage the reader through beauty, imagination, and emotional appeal. Without pleasure, a work cannot hold attention or inspire reflection.
Utile (Utility): Literature should also be useful. It should convey insight, moral understanding, or knowledge about life and society.A sermon is often Utile but not Dulce; a trashy tabloid is Dulce but not Utile. Great literature is both.
- Catharsis (Emotional Release and Renewal)
Aristotle, in his Poetics (4th century BCE), examined what he called the paradox of tragedy: why audiences willingly watch scenes of suffering and sorrow. His answer was the concept of catharsis, meaning purification or release of emotion.
According to Aristotle:
Human beings carry suppressed feelings, especially pity and fear.
Tragic drama allows these emotions to be experienced safely through art.
By identifying with fictional characters, audiences undergo a symbolic emotional release.
In witnessing the downfall or suffering of a tragic figure, we confront emotions that might otherwise remain unresolved. The experience leaves us feeling emotionally clarified and restored, much like a therapeutic process.
3. Mimesis (The Mirror of Life)
Another key Aristotelian concept is mimesis, often translated as imitation. Literature does not merely copy reality; it re-creates human experience in a way that reveals deeper truths.
Historical Mimesis: History books record the dates of battles. Literature records how it felt to be in the battle. To understand the Victorian era, one learns more from the poverty depicted in Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist than from census data of the 1830s.
Societal Reflection: Literature holds a mirror up to society, forcing us to look at our flaws, prejudices, and triumphs.
